Maximilian
II, Holy Roman Emperor
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article relies largely or
entirely upon a single source. (November 2012) |
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Maximilian II |
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Reign |
20 September 1563 – 12 October 1576 |
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20 September 1562, Prague |
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Successor |
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Reign |
8 September 1563 – 12 October 1576 |
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Coronation |
8 September 1563, Pressburg |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
28 November 1562 – 12 October 1576 |
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Coronation |
30 November 1562, Frankfurt |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
25 July 1564 – 12 October 1576 |
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Successor |
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Spouse |
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Issue |
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Anna, Queen
of Spain |
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Father |
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Mother |
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Born |
31 July 1527 |
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Died |
12 October 1576 (aged 49) |
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Maximilian II (31
July 1527 – 12 October 1576) was king of Bohemia and
king of the Romans (king of Germany) from 1562, king ofHungary and Croatia from
1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death.[1] He was a member of the House of
Habsburg.
Contents
[hide]
·
4 Titles
Biography[edit]
The
young Maximilian as archduke
.svg)
Maximilian's
coat of arms as archduke.
Born in Vienna, he was a son of
his predecessor Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperorand Anna of Bohemia and Hungary (1503–1547). He was named after his
great-grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Anne was a daughter of KingLadislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary and his wife Anne de Foix.
Educated principally in Italy, he gained some
experience of warfare during the campaign of his paternal uncle Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor against France in 1544, and also
during the War of the league of Schmalkalden, and
soon began to take part in imperial business. Having in September 1548 married
his cousin Maria, daughter of Charles V, he acted as the emperor's representative in Spain from 1548 to 1550, returning to Germany
in December 1550 in order to take part in the discussion over the imperial
succession.
Charles V wished his son Philip (afterwards
king of Spain) to succeed him as emperor, but his brother Ferdinand, who had already been designated
as the next occupant of the imperial throne, and Maximilian objected to this
proposal. At length a compromise was reached. Philip was to succeed Ferdinand,
but during the former's reign Maximilian, as king of the Romans, was to govern Germany.
This arrangement was not carried out, and is only important because the
insistence of the emperor seriously disturbed the harmonious relations which
had hitherto existed between the two branches of the Habsburg family; an
illness which befell Maximilian in 1552 was attributed to poison given to him
in the interests of his cousin and brother-in-law, Philip of Spain.
About this time he took up his residence in Vienna, being engaged
mainly in the government of the Austrian dominions and in defending them
against the Turks.
The religious views of the king of Bohemia,
as Maximilian had been called since his recognition as the future ruler of that
country in 1549, had always been somewhat uncertain, and he had probably
learned something of Lutheranism in his youth; but his amicable relations with
several Protestant princes, which began about the time of the discussion over
the succession, were probably due more to political than to religious
considerations. However, in Vienna he became very intimate with Sebastian Pfauser (de),
a court preacher with strong leanings towards Lutheranism, and his religious
attitude caused some uneasiness to his father. Fears were freely expressed that
he would definitely leave the Catholic Church,
and when Ferdinand became emperor in 1558 he was prepared to assure Pope Paul IV that his son should not succeed him if
he took this step. Eventually Maximilian remained nominally an adherent of the
older faith, although his views were tinged with Lutheranism until the end of
his life. After several refusals he consented in 1560 to the banishment of
Pfauser, and began again to attend the Masses of the Catholic Church.
In November 1562 Maximilian was chosen king
of the Romans, or German king, at Frankfurt,
where he was crowned a few days later, after assuring the Catholic electors of
his fidelity to their faith, and promising the Protestant electors that he
would publicly accept the confession of Augsburg when he became emperor. He
also took the usual oath to protect the Church, and his election was afterwards
confirmed by the papacy. He was the first King of the Romans not to be
coronated in Aachen. In September 1563
he was crowned king of Hungary by the Archbishop of Esztergom, Nicolaus Olahus,
and on his father's death, in July 1564, he succeeded to the empire and to the
kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia.
The new emperor had already shown that he
believed in the necessity for a thorough reform of the Church. He was unable,
however, to obtain the consent of Pope Pius IV to the marriage of the clergy,
and in 1568 the concession of communion in both kinds to the laity was
withdrawn. On his part Maximilian granted religious liberty to the Lutheran
nobles and knights in Austria, and refused to allow the publication of the
decrees of the council of Trent.
Amidst general expectations on the part of the Protestants he met his first Diet of Augsburg in March 1566. He refused to accede to
the demands of the Lutheran princes; on the other hand, although the increase
of sectarianism was discussed, no decisive steps were taken to suppress it, and
the only result of the meeting was a grant of assistance for the Turkish War,
which had just been renewed. Collecting a large army Maximilian marched to
defend his territories; but no decisive engagement had taken place when a truce
was made in 1568, and the emperor continued to pay tribute to the sultan as the
price of peace in the western and northern areas of the Hungarian kingdom still
under Habsburg control.
Meanwhile the relations between Maximilian
and Philip of Spain had improved; and the emperor's increasingly cautious and
moderate attitude in religious matters was doubtless because the death of
Philip's son, Don Carlos, had opened the way for the
succession of Maximilian, or of one of his sons, to the Spanish throne.
Evidence of this friendly feeling was given in 1570, when the emperor's
daughter,Anna, became the fourth wife of Philip;
but Maximilian was unable to moderate the harsh proceedings of the Spanish king
against the revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. In 1570 the emperor met the diet of Speyer and asked for aid to place his eastern
borders in a state of defence, and also for power to repress the disorder
caused by troops in the service of foreign powers passing through Germany. He
proposed that his consent should be necessary before any soldiers for foreign
service were recruited in the empire; but the estates were unwilling to
strengthen the imperial authority, the Protestant princes regarded the
suggestion as an attempt to prevent them from assisting their co-religionists
in France and the Netherlands, and nothing was done in this direction, although
some assistance was voted for the defense of Austria. The religious demands of
the Protestants were still unsatisfied, while the policy of toleration had
failed to give peace to Austria. Maximilian's power was very limited; it was
inability rather than unwillingness that prevented him from yielding to the
entreaties of Pope Pius V to join in an attack on the Turks both
before and after the victory of Lepanto in 1571; and he remained inert while
the authority of the empire in north-eastern Europe was threatened.
In 1575, Maximilian was elected by the part
of Polish and Lithuanian magnates to be the King of Poland in opposition to Stephan IV
Bathory, but he did not manage to become widely accepted there and
was forced to leave Poland.
Maximilian died on 12 October 1576 in Regensburg while preparing to invade Poland. On
his deathbed he refused to receive the last sacraments of the Church. He is
buried inSt. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.
By his wife Maria he had a family of nine
sons and six daughters. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Rudolf, who had been chosen king of the
Romans in October 1575. Another of his sons, Matthias, also became emperor; three
others, Ernest, Albert and Maximilian, took some part in the
government of the Habsburg territories or of the Netherlands, and a daughter,
Elizabeth, married Charles IX of France.
Religious policies[edit]
Maximilian's policies of religious neutrality
and peace in the Empire afforded its Roman Catholics and Protestants a breathing-space after the first
struggles of theReformation.
He disappointed the German Protestant princes by his refusal to invest Lutheran administrators of prince-bishoprics with their imperial fiefs. Yet on a
personal basis he granted freedom of worship to the Protestant nobility and
worked for reform in the Roman Catholic Church, including the right of priests
to marry. This failed because ofSpanish opposition.
Maximilian II was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.
Marriage and children[edit]
Maximilian
II with his family by Giuseppe Arcimboldo
On 13 September 1548, Maximilian married his
first cousin Maria of Spain,
daughter of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor andIsabella of Portugal. They had sixteen
children:
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Archduchess Anna of Austria (1 November 1549 – 26 October 1580).
Married Philip II of Spain, her uncle. She was the
mother of Philip III of Spain.
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Archduke Ferdinand of
Austria (28 March 1551 – 25 June 1552).
·
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612).
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Archduke Ernest of Austria, (15 July 1553
– 12 February 1595). He served as Governor of the Low Countries.
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Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria (5 June 1554 – 22 January 1592).
Married Charles IX of France.
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Archduchess Marie of
Austria (27 July 1555 – 25 June 1556).
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Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor (24 February 1557 – 20 March 1619).
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A stillborn son (20
October 1557).
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Archduke Maximilian of Austria (12 October 1558 – 2 November 1618).
Elected king of Poland, but never crowned. He served as grandmaster of the Teutonic Order and Administrator of Prussia.
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Archduke Albert of Austria (15 November 1559 – 13 July 1621). He
served as Governor of the Low Countries.
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Archduke Wenceslaus of Austria (9 March 1561 – 22 September 1578).
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Archduke Frederick of
Austria (21 June 1562 – 16 January 1563).
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Archduchess Marie of
Austria (19 February 1564 – 26 March 1564). Named after her deceased older
sister.
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Archduke Charles of
Austria (26 September 1565 – 23 May 1566).
·
Archduchess Margaret of Austria (25 January 1567 – 5 July 1633). A
nun.
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Archduchess Eleanor
of Austria (4 November 1568 – 12 March 1580).
Titles[edit]
Emperor's full titulature went as follows: Maximilian II, by the grace of God
elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, of Hungary,
Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, etc. Archduke of Austria, Duke of
Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Luxemburg, Württemberg, the
Upper and Lower Silesia, Prince of Swabia, Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire,
Burgau, Moravia, the Upper and Lower Lusatia, Princely Count of Habsburg,
Tyrol, Ferrette, Kyburg, Gorizia, Landgrave of Alsace, Lord of the Wendish
March, Pordenone and Salins, etc. etc.
Ancestors[edit]
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Ancestors of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor |
See also[edit]
·
Kings of Germany family tree. He was
related to every other king of Germany.
References[edit]
1.
^ Maximilian II. (2009). In Encyclopædia
Britannica. Retrieved 20 May 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370517/Maximilian-II
External links[edit]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor |
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Maximilian II,
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Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral
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Candidates for the Polish elective throne
Rudolf
II, Holy Roman Emperor
From
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Rudolf
II" redirects here. For 13th century Duke of Austria, see Rudolf II, Duke of Austria.
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Rudolf II |
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27 October 1575–1612 |
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1 November 1575, Regensburg |
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1572–1608 |
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Coronation |
25 September 1572, Pressburg |
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1576–1611 |
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Coronation |
22 September 1575, Prague |
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12 October 1576 – 20 January 1612 |
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18 July 1552 |
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Rudolf II (July
18, 1552 – January 20, 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the House of
Habsburg.
Rudolf's legacy has traditionally been viewed
in three ways:[1] an ineffectual ruler whose mistakes
led directly to the Thirty Years' War; a great and influential
patron of Northern Mannerist art; and a devotee of occult arts and
learning which helped seed thescientific revolution.
Contents
[hide]
·
6 Notes
Biography[edit]
Archduke
Rudolf
Rudolf was born in Vienna on 18 July 1552. He was the eldest son
and successor ofMaximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, and King of
Hungary and Croatia; his mother was Maria of Spain,
a daughter of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal.
Rudolf spent eight formative years, from age
11 to 19 (1563–1571), in Spain, at the court of his maternal uncle Phillip II. After his return to Vienna,
his father was concerned about Rudolf's aloof and stiff manner, typical of the
more conservative Spanish court, rather than the more relaxed and open Austrian
court; but his Spanish mother saw in him courtliness and refinement.[2] Rudolf would remain for the rest of
his life reserved, secretive, and largely a homebody who did not like to travel
or even partake in the daily affairs of state.[2] He was more intrigued by occult
learning such as astrology and alchemy, which was mainstream in the Renaissance
period, and had a wide variety of personal hobbies such as horses, clocks,
collecting rarities, and being a patron of the arts. He suffered from periodic
bouts of "melancholy" (depression), which was common in the Habsburgline. These became
worse with age, and were manifested by a withdrawal from the world and its
affairs into his private interests.
Like his contemporary, Elizabeth I of England, Rudolf dangled
himself as a prize in a string of diplomatic negotiations for marriages, but
never in fact married. It has been proposed by A. L. Rowse that he washomosexual.
During his periods of self-imposed isolation, Rudolf reportedly had affairs
with his court chamberlain, Wolfgang von Rumpf, and a series of valets. One of
these, Philip Lang, ruled him for years and was hated by those seeking favour
with the emperor.[3] Rudolf was known, in addition, to have
had a succession of affairs with women, some of whom claimed to have been
impregnated by him.[2] He had several illegitimate children
with his mistress Catherina Strada. Their eldest son, don Julius Caesar
d´Austria, was likely born between 1584 and 1586 and received an education and
opportunities for political and social prominence from his father.[4] In 1607, Rudolf sent Julius to live at
the Bohemian Český Krumlov (in the modern-day Czech Republic)
castle, which Rudolf purchased from the last of the House of Rosenberg (Peter Vok/Wok
von Rosenberg) after he fell into financial ruin. Julius lived at Český Krumlov when in 1608 he reportedly abused and
murdered a local barber's daughter, who had been living in the castle, and then
disfigured her body. Rudolf condemned his son's act and suggested that he
should be imprisoned for the rest of his life. However, Julius died in 1609
after showing signs of schizophrenia,
refusing to bathe, and living in squalor; his death was apparently caused by an
ulcer that ruptured.[4]
Many artworks commissioned by Rudolf are
unusually erotic.[5] The emperor was the subject of a
whispering campaign by his enemies in his family and the Church in the years before he was deposed.
Sexual allegations may well have formed a part of the campaign against him.[6]
Historians have traditionally blamed Rudolf's
preoccupation with the arts, occult sciences, and other personal interests as
the reason for the political disasters of his reign.[1]More
recently historians have re-evaluated this view and see his patronage of the
arts and occult sciences as a triumph and key part of the Renaissance, while
his political failures are seen as a legitimate attempt to create a unified
Christian empire, which was undermined by the realities of religious, political
and intellectual disintegrations of the time.[1]
Engraving by Aegidius Sadeler (1603)
Although raised in his uncle's Catholic court
in Spain, Rudolf was tolerant of Protestantism and other religions including
Judaism.[2]He
largely withdrew from Catholic observances, even in death denying last
sacramental rites. He had little attachment to Protestants either, except as
counter-weight to repressive Papal policies.[1] He put his primary support behind conciliarists,irenicists and humanists.[1] When the papacy instigated the Counter-Reformation, using agents sent to
his court, Rudolf backed those who he thought were the most neutral in the debate,
not taking a side or trying to effect restraint, thus leading to political
chaos and threatening to provoke civil war.[1]
His conflict with the Ottoman Turks was the final cause of his undoing.
Unwilling to compromise with the Turks, and stubbornly determined that he could
unify all of Christendom with a new Crusade, he started a long
and indecisive war with the Turks in 1593.[7] This war lasted till 1606, and was
known as "The Long War".[1] By 1604 his Hungarian subjects were
exhausted by the war and revolted, led by Stephen Bocskay.
In 1605 Rudolf was forced by his other family members to cede control of
Hungarian affairs to his younger brother Archduke Matthias. Matthias by 1606 forged
a difficult peace with the Hungarian rebels (Peace of Vienna) and the Turks (Peace of Zsitvatorok). Rudolf was angry
with his brother's concessions, which he saw as giving away too much in order
to further Matthias' hold on power. So Rudolf prepared to start a new war with
the Turks. But Matthias rallied support from the disaffected Hungarians and
forced Rudolf to give up the crowns of Hungary, Austria, and Moravia to him.
Matthias imprisoned Georg Keglević who was the Commander-in-chief, General, Vice-Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia and
since 1602Baron in Transylvania,
but soon left him free again. At that time the Principality of Transylvania was a fully autonomous, but only
semi-independent state under the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire,
where it was the time of the Sultanate of Women. At the same time,
seeing a moment of royal weakness, Bohemian Protestants demanded greater
religious liberty, which Rudolf granted in the Letter of
Majesty in 1609.
However the Bohemians continued to press for further freedoms and Rudolf used
his army to repress them. The Bohemian Protestants appealed to Matthias for
help, whose army then held Rudolf prisoner in his castle in Prague, until 1611,
when Rudolf was forced to cede the crown of Bohemia to his brother.
The Crown of Rudolf II later became the imperial crown of the Austrian Empire.
Rudolf died in 1612, nine months after he had
been stripped of all effective power by his younger brother, except the empty
title of Holy Roman Emperor, to which Matthias was elected five months later.
He died unmarried. In May 1618 with the event known as theDefenestration of Prague, the Protestant
Bohemians, in defence of the rights granted them in the Letter of Majesty, began the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).
Patron of arts[edit]
Rudolf moved the Habsburg capital from Vienna
to Prague in 1583. Rudolf loved collecting paintings, and was often reported to
sit and stare in rapture at a new work for hours on end.[2] He spared no expense in acquiring
great past masterworks, such as those of Dürerand Brueghel. He was also patron to some of
the best contemporary artists, who mainly produced new works in the Northern Mannerist style, such as Bartholomeus Spranger, Hans von Aachen, Giambologna, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Aegidius Sadeler, Roelant Savery,
and Adrian de Vries,
as well as commissioning works from Italians like Veronese.
Rudolf's collections were the most impressive in the Europe of his day, and the
greatest collection of Northern Mannerist art ever assembled.[1]
Rudolf's love of collecting went far beyond
paintings and sculptures. He commissioned decorative objects of all kinds and
in particular mechanical moving devices. Ceremonial swords and musical
instruments, clocks, water works, astrolabes, compasses, telescopes and other
scientific instruments, were all produced for him by some of the best craftsmen
in Europe.
He patronized natural philosophers such as the botanist Charles de l'Ecluse, and the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Keplerboth
attended his court. Tycho Brahe developed the Rudolfine tables (finished by
Kepler, after Brahe's death), the first comprehensive table of data of the movements
of the planets. As mentioned before, Rudolf also attracted some of the best
scientific instrument makers of the time, such as Jost Buergi, Erasmus Habermel
and Hans Christoph Schissler. They had direct contact with the court
astronomers and, through the financial support of the court, they were
economically independent to develop scientific instruments and manufacturing
techniques.[8]
Rudolf
painted as Vertumnus,
Roman God of the seasons, byGiuseppe Arcimboldo (1590–1). Rudolf greatly appreciated
the work.
The poetess Elizabeth Jane Weston, a writer of
neo-Latin poetry, was also part of his court and wrote numerous odes to him.
Rudolf kept a menagerie of exotic animals,
botanical gardens, and Europe's most extensive "cabinet of curiosities"[2] (Kunstkammer) incorporating
"the three kingdoms of nature and the works of man". It was housed at Prague Castle,
where between 1587 and 1605 he built the northern wing to house his growing
collections.[9]
Rudolf was even alleged by one person to have
owned the Voynich manuscript, a codex whose author
and purpose, as well as the language and script and posited cipher remain
unidentified to this day. According to hearsay passed on in a letter written by Johannes Marcus Marci in 1665, Rudolf was said to have
acquired the manuscript at some unspecified time for 600 gold ducats. No evidence in
support of this single piece of hearsay has ever been discovered.
By 1597, the collection occupied three rooms
of the incomplete northern wing. When building was completed in 1605, the
collection was moved to the dedicated Kunstkammer. Naturalia (minerals and gemstones) were arranged
in a 37 cabinet display that had three vaulted chambers in front, each about
5.5 metres wide by 3 metres high and 60 metres long, connected to a main
chamber 33 metres long. Large uncut gemstones were held in strong boxes.[10]
Rudolf's Kunstkammer was not a typical "cabinet of
curiosities" - a haphazard collection of unrelated specimens. Rather, the
Rudolfine Kunstkammer was systematically arranged in an encyclopaedic fashion. In addition, Rudolf II
employed his polyglot court physician, Anselmus Boetius
de Boodt (c. 1550–1632), to curate the collection. De Boodt was an avid
mineral collector. He travelled widely on collecting trips to the mining regions of Germany, Bohemia and Silesia, often accompanied
by his Bohemian naturalistfriend, Thaddaeus Hagecius. Between 1607 and 1611,
de Boodt catalogued the Kunstkammer,
and in 1609 he published Gemmarum
et Lapidum, one of the finest mineralogical treatises of the 17th century.[10]
As was customary at the time, the collection
was private, but friends of the Emperor, artists, and
professional scholars were allowed to study it. The collection became an
invaluable research tool during the flowering of 17th-century European philosophy,
the "Age of Reason".
Rudolf's successors did not appreciate the
collection and the Kunstkammer gradually fell into disarray. Some 50
years after its establishment, most of the collection was packed into wooden
crates and moved to Vienna. The collection
remaining at Prague was looted during the last year of the Thirty Years War,
by Swedish troops who sacked Prague Castle on 26 July 1648, also taking the
best of the paintings, many of which later passed to the Orléans Collection after the death of Christina of Sweden. In 1782, the
remainder of the collection was sold piecemeal to private parties by Joseph II. One of the surviving items from
the Kunstkammer is a "fine chair" looted by
the Swedes in 1648 and now owned by the Earl of Radnor at Longford Castle, United Kingdom;[11] others survive in museums.
Occult sciences[edit]
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Coats of arms |
Astrology and alchemy were mainstream science
in Renaissance Prague, and Rudolf was a
firm devotee of both. His lifelong quest was to find the Philosopher's Stone and Rudolf spared no expense in
bringing Europe's best alchemists to court, such as Edward Kelley andJohn Dee. Rudolf even performed his own
experiments in a private alchemy laboratory.[2] When Rudolf was a prince, Nostradamusprepared
a horoscope which was dedicated to him as 'Prince and King'.
Rudolf gave Prague a mystical reputation that
persists in part to this day, with Alchemists' Alley on the grounds of Prague Castle a
popular visiting place.
Rudolf is also the ruler in many of the
legends of the Golem of Prague,
either because of or simply adding to his occult reputation.
Ancestors[edit]
|
Ancestors of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor |
See also[edit]
·
Kings of Germany family tree; he was
related to every other king of Germany
·
Moldavian Magnate Wars for the background on southern wars
(with Ottoman Turkey and its allies)
·
Vespasiano I Gonzaga, a friend of Rudolf
who built a Renaissance "Ideal city" in Sabbioneta,
Italy
·
Mineral collecting Rudolf II was 16th century most famous
mineral collector whose collection were curated by Anselmus de
Boodt
Notes[edit]
1.
^ a b c d e f g h Hotson, 1999.
2.
^ a b c d e f g Marshall, 2006.
3.
^ Rouse, 1977.
4.
^ a b "Don Julius D'Austria and his Fate".
State Castle and Chateau Český Krumlov. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
5.
^ Trevor-Roper, 116-120
6.
^ Trevor-Roper, 121-123. Trevor-Roper mentions
many stories and rumours, but not those of Rudolf's homosexuality
7.
^ Kimberly L. Craft, The Private Letters of Countess Erzsébet
Báthory (The United States of America: Kimberly L.
Craft, 2011), 73-74.
8.
^ Kern,
Ralf (2010). Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer
Zeit/Volume 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck. Cologne. pp. 366 and 370.
9.
^ Wendell E. Wilson, Joel A. Bartsch & Mark
Mauthner, Masterpieces of the Mineral World: Treasures from the Houston Museum
of Natural Science, Houston Museum of Natural Science Harry N. Abrams/New York,
2004. ISBN
0-810-96751-0
10.
^ a b Wilson,
Wendell (1994). Wilson, Wendell, ed. The
History of Mineral Collecting, 1530-1799. Mineralogical Record.
11.
^ Hayward, J. F., 1980. A Chair from the
'Kunstkammer' of the Emperor Rudolf II. The Burlington Magazine, 122(927), 428
to 432. [1]
References[edit]
|
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor |
·
Bolton, Henry
Carrington (1904). The
Follies of Science at the Court of Rudolph II, 1576-1612,
Milwaukee: Pharmaceutical Review Publishing Co., 1904. From Internet Archive Inaccurate and misleading
·
Evans, R. J. W.
(1953). Rudolf II and his
world: A study in intellectual history, 1576-1612. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
2nd ed, 1984. Considered the fundamental re-evaluation of Rudolf.
·
Rowse, A. L. (1977). Homosexuals in History: Ambivalence
in Society, Literature and the Arts. MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN
0-02-605620-8
·
Hotson, Howard (1999). "Rudolf II", in Encyclopedia of the Renaissance,
ed. Paul Grendler. Vol. 5. ISBN
0-684-80514-6
·
Marshall, Peter (2006). The Magic Circle of Rudolf II:
Alchemy and Astrology in Renaissance Prague. ISBN
0-8027-1551-6. Also published as The
Theatre of the World: Alchemy, Astrology and Magic in Renaissance Prague (in the UK, ISBN
0-436-20521-1; in Canada, ISBN
0-7710-5690-7); and in paperback as The Mercurial Emperor: The Magic
Circle of Rudolf II in Renaissance Prague (2007) ISBN
978-1-8441-3537-0. Biography, focusing on the many artists and
scientists Rudolf patronized.
·
Trevor-Roper,
Hugh; Princes and
Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames
& Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN
0-500-23232-6
External links[edit]
·
Rudolf
II, from Encyclopædia Britannica, latest
edition online, full-article.
·
Rudolf II and
Prague, 1997 official exhibition.
·
Prague
during the reign of Rudolf II, by Jacob Wisse, in Timeline of Art History. New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.
·
Rudolf II, by Edward Einhorn,
tells the story of the latter part of Rudolf II's life.
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Rudolf II, Holy
Roman Emperor Born: 18 July 1552 Died: 20 January 1612 |
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16th-century Austrian people
Sultanate
of Women
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Part of a series on the |
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The Sultanate
of Women (Turkish: Kadınlar Saltanatı)
was the near 130-year period during the 16th and 17th centuries when the women
of the Imperial Harem of the Ottoman Empire exerted extraordinary political
influence. Many of the Sultansduring this time
were minors and it was their mothers, leaders of
the Harem, who effectively ruled the Empire. Most of these women were of slave
origin, due to the need for the House of Osman to maintain its prestige; no
other royal house was perceived as being prominent enough to be worth marrying
into.
Contents
[hide] |
See also[edit]
·
İlhan
Akşit. The Mystery of the
Ottoman Harem. Akşit Kültür Turizm Yayınları. ISBN
975-7039-26-8
·
Leslie P. Peirce. The Imperial Harem: Women and
Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN
978-0-19-508677-5
External links[edit]
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Channel 4 History | The sultanate of women
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This Ottoman Empire-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding
it. |
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Political history of the Ottoman Empire
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16th century in the Ottoman Empire
Matthias,
Holy Roman Emperor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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entirely upon a single source. (October 2012) |
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Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor |
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13 June 1612 – 20 March 1619 |
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26 June 1612, Frankfurt |
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1608–1619 |
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19 November 1608, Pressburg |
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1611–1619 |
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23 May 1611, Prague |
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1608 – 20 March 1619 |
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Matthias of Austria (24
February 1557 – 20 March 1619) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1612, King of Hungary and Croatia from
1608 (as Matthias II) and
King of Bohemia from
1611. He was a member of the House of
Habsburg.[1]
Contents
[hide]
·
2 Names
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4 Titles
Biography[edit]
Coronation
medal of Matthias II with the Holy Crown of Hungary
Matthias was born in the Austrian capital
of Vienna to Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperorand Maria of Spain.
Matthias married Archduchess Anna of Austria, daughter of
his uncle Archduke Ferdinand IIof Austria, whose successor in Further Austria Matthias became in 1595. Their
marriage did not produce surviving children.
In 1578, Matthias was invited to the Netherlands by the States-General of the
rebellious provinces, who offered him the position of Governor-General.
Matthias accepted the appointment, although the position was not recognized by
his uncle, Philip II of Spain, the hereditary ruler
of the provinces. Matthias nonetheless remained as titular governor for the
rebels until they deposed Philip II and declared full independence in 1581, at
which point Matthias returned home to Austria.
In 1593 he was appointed governor of Austria
by his brother, Emperor Rudolf II. He formed a close association
there with the Bishop of Vienna, Melchior Klesl,
who later became his chief adviser. In 1605 Matthias forced the ailing emperor
to allow him to deal with the Hungarian Protestant rebels. The result was the Peace of Vienna of 1606, which guaranteed religious
freedom in Hungary and guaranteed the right of Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes
in the future. In the same year Matthias was recognized as head of the House of Habsburg and as the future Holy Roman Emperor,
as a result of Rudolf's illness. Allying himself with the estates of Hungary,
Austria, and Moravia, Matthias forced
his brother to yield rule of these lands to him in 1608; Rudolf later ceded Bohemia in 1611. Matthias's army then held
Rudolf prisoner in his castle in Prague, until 1611, when Rudolf was forced to
cede the crown of Bohemia to his brother.
After Matthias's accession as Holy Roman
Emperor, his policy was dominated by Klesl, who hoped to bring about a
compromise between Catholic and
Protestant states within the Holy Roman
Empire in order to
strengthen it. Matthias had already been forced to grant religious concessions
to Protestants in Austria and Moravia, as well as in Hungary, when he had
allied with them against Rudolf. Matthias imprisoned Georg Keglević who was the Commander-in-chief, General, Vice-Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia and
since 1602 Baron in Transylvania,
but soon left him free again. At that time was the Principality of Transylvaniaa
fully autonomous, but only semi-independent state under the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire,
where it was the time of the Sultanate of Women.
Matthias's conciliatory policies were opposed
by the more intransigent Catholic Habsburgs, particularly Matthias's brotherArchduke Maximilian, who hoped to secure
the succession for the inflexible Catholic Archduke Ferdinand (later EmperorFerdinand II). The start of the Bohemian Protestant revolt in 1618 provoked Maximilian to
imprison Klesl and revise his policies. Matthias, old and ailing, was unable to
prevent a takeover by Maximilian's faction. Ferdinand, who had already been
crowned King of Bohemia (1617) and of Hungary (1618), succeeded Matthias as
Holy Roman Emperor.
Matthias died in Vienna in 1619.
Names[edit]
Names in other languages:
·
German: Matthias
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Czech: Matyáš
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Croatian: Matija II.
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Hungarian: II. Mátyás
·
Polish: Maciej
·
Romanian: Matei
·
Russian: Матвей
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Slovak: Matej
·
Ukrainian: Матвій
Ancestry[edit]
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Ancestors of Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor |
Titles[edit]
Matthias, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King
in Germany, of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama,
Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy,
Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Luxemburg, Württemberg, the Upper and
Lower Silesia, Prince of Swabia, Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgau,
Moravia, the Upper and Lower Lusatia, Princely Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Ferrette, Kyburg,
Gorizia, Landgrave of Alsace, Lord of the Wendish March, Pordenone and Salins,
etc. etc.
See also[edit]
|
|
Wikisource has the text of a 1911Encyclopædia Britannica article about Matthias. |
·
Kings of Germany family tree. He was
related to every other king of Germany.
References[edit]
1.
^ Matthias
(Holy Roman emperor) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
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Matthias, Holy
Roman Emperor Born: 24 February 1557 Died: 20 March 1619 |
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Ferdinand
II, Holy Roman Emperor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional
citations for verification. (August 2012) |
‹ The template Infobox royalty is being considered for
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Ferdinand II |
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28 August 1619[1] – 15 February 1637 |
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9 September 1619, Frankfurt |
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Successor |
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Reign |
5 June 1617 – 15 February 1637 |
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Coronation |
29 June 1617, Prague |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
1 July 1618 – 15 February 1637 |
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Coronation |
1 July 1618, Pressburg |
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Reign |
1619 – 15 February 1637 |
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Ferdinand
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9 July 1578 |
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15 February 1637 (aged 58) |
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Burial |
Mausoleum in
Graz, Austria (body) |
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Religion |
Roman Catholicism |
Ferdinand II (9
July 1578 – 15 February 1637), a member of the House of
Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor (1619–1637), King of Bohemia (1617–1619, 1620–1637), and King of Hungary (1618–1625).[2][3] His rule coincided with the Thirty Years' War.
Contents
[hide]
·
1 Life
·
4 Titles
Life[edit]
He was born at Graz, the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and Maria Anna of Bavaria. He was educated by
the Jesuits and later attended the University of Ingolstadt. After completing
his studies in 1595, he acceded to his hereditary lands (where his older
cousin, Archduke Maximilian III of Austria, had acted as
regent between 1593 and 1595) and made a pilgrimage to Loretoand
Rome. Shortly afterwards, he began to suppress non-Catholic faith in his
territories.
With the Oñate treaty,
Ferdinand obtained the support of the Spanish Habsburgs in the succession of
his childless cousinMatthias, in exchange for concessions in Alsace and Italy. In 1617, he was elected King of Bohemia by the Bohemian diet, in 1618, King of Hungary by the Hungarian estates, and in 1619, Holy Roman Emperor.
His devout Catholicism caused immediate
turmoil in his non-Catholic subjects, especially in Bohemia. He did not wish to
uphold the religious liberties granted by the Letter of Majesty conceded,
signed by the previous emperor, Rudolph II, which had guaranteed the
freedom of religion to the nobles and the inhabitants of the cities.
Additionally, Ferdinand was an absolutist monarch and infringed several
historical privileges of the nobles.[citation
needed] Given
the relatively great number of Protestants in the kingdom, including some of
the nobles, the king's unpopularity soon caused the Bohemian Revolt.
The Second Defenestration of Prague of 22 May 1618 is considered the first
step of the Thirty Years' War.
In the following events he remained one of
the staunchest backers of the Anti-Protestant Counter Reformation efforts as one of the heads of the German Catholic League. Ferdinand
succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. Supported by the Catholic
League and the Kings of Spain and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ferdinand
decided to reclaim his possession in Bohemia and to quench the rebels. On 8
November 1620 his troops, led by the Belgian general Johann Tserclaes, count of Tilly, smashed
the rebels of Frederick V, who had been elected as rival
King in 1618. After Frederick's flight to the Netherlands, Ferdinand ordered a
massive effort to bring about conversion to Catholicism in Bohemia and Austria,
causing Protestantism there to nearly disappear in the following decades, and
reduced the Diet's power.
In 1625, despite the subsidies received from
Spain and the Pope, Ferdinand was in a bad financial situation. In order to
muster an imperial army to continue the war, he applied to Albrecht von Wallenstein, one of the
richest men in Bohemia: the latter accepted on condition that he could keep
total control over the direction of the war, as well as over the booties taken
during the operations. Wallenstein was able to recruit some 30,000 men (later
expanded up to 100,000), with whom he was able to defeat the Protestants in Silesia, Anhalt and Denmark. In the wake of
the overwhelming Catholic military successes, in 1629 Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, by which all the
land stripped to the Catholics after the Peace of Passau of 1552 would be returned.
His new revitalized Catholic demands caused
the tottering Protestants to call in Gustavus II Adolphus, King of Sweden.
Further, some of Ferdinand's Catholic allies started to complain about the
excessive power gained by Wallenstein, as well as of the ruthless method he
used to finance his huge army. Ferdinand replied by firing the Bohemian general
in 1630. The lead of the war thenceforth was assigned to Tilly, who was however
unable to stop the Swedish march from northern Germany towards Austria. Some
historians directly blame Ferdinand for the large civilian loss of life in the Sack of
Magdeburg in 1631: he
had instructed Tilly to enforce the edict of Restitution upon the Electorate of Saxony, his orders causing
the Belgian general to move the Catholic armies east, ultimately to Leipzig, where they
suffered their first substantial defeat at the First Battle of Breitenfeld (1631).
Tilly died in 1632. Wallenstein was recalled,
being able to muster an army in only a week, and to expel the Swedes from
Bohemia. In November 1632 the Catholics were defeated in the Battle of Lützen (1632), but Gustavus
Adolphus died. A period of minor operations followed, perhaps because of
Wallenstein's ambiguous conduct, which ended with his assassination in 1634,
perhaps ordered by Ferdinand himself.
Despite Wallenstein's fall, the imperial
forces recaptured Regensburg and were victorious in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634). The Swedish
army was substantially weakened, and the fear that the Habsburgs' power could
at that point become overwhelming in the empire triggered France, led by Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu, to enter the war on
the Protestant side. (Louis's father Henry IV of France had once been a Huguenot leader.) In
1635 Ferdinand signed his last important act, the Peace of Prague (1635), which however did
not end the war.
He died in 1637, leaving to his son Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, an
empire still entangled in a war and whose fortunes seemed to be increasingly
fading away. Ferdinand II war buried in his Mausoleum in Graz. His heart was
interred in the Herzgruft (heart crypt) of the Augustinian Church, Vienna.
Marriages and issue[edit]
In 1600, Ferdinand married Maria Anna of Bavaria (1574-1616),
daughter of Duke William V of Bavaria. They had seven children:
·
Archduchess Christine
(25 May 1601 – 12/21 June 1601)
·
Archduke Charles (25
May 1603)
·
Archduke John-Charles
(1 November 1605 – 26 December 1619)
·
Ferdinand III (13 July 1608 – 2 April 1657)
married:
·
1631 Infanta Maria Anna of Spain
·
1648 Maria Leopoldine of Austria
·
1651 Eleanor Gonzaga (1630–1686)
·
Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (13 January 1610 – 25 September
1665)
·
Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria (16 July 1611 – 24 March 1644), who
married her cousin Władysław IV Vasa, King of
Poland.
·
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria (1614–1662).
In 1622, he married Eleonore of Mantua (Gonzaga) (1598–1655), the daughter of Duke Vincenzo I of Mantua and Eleonora de' Medici, at Innsbruck.
|
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor |
Ancestors[edit]
|
Ancestors of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor |
Titles[edit]
Ferdinand II, by the grace of God elected
Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia,
Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania,
Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower
Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol,
Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and
Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines,
etc. etc.
References[edit]
1.
^ Setton,
Kenneth Meyer (1991). Venice,
Austria, and the Turks in the seventeenth century. American
Philosophical Society. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-87169-192-7. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
2.
^ Hans
Sturmberger. "Ferdinand II (Holy Roman emperor) :
Introduction - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
3.
^ "Ferdinand II (Holy Roman Empire) – MSN Encarta".
Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.
See also[edit]
·
Kings of Germany family tree. He was
related to every other king of Germany.
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Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor Born: 9 July 1578 Died: 15 February 1637 |
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Archduke of Further Austria |
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Archduke of Austria |
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Archduke of Inner Austria |
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Holy Roman Emperor (elect) |
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Knights of the Golden Fleece
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Pretenders to the Bohemian throne
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University of Ingolstadt alumni
·
Austrian people of the Thirty Years' War
·
16th-century Austrian people
Ferdinand
III, Holy Roman Emperor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional
citations for verification. (February 2011) |
‹ The template Infobox royalty is being considered for
merging. ›
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Ferdinand III |
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Emperor
Ferdinand III wearing the Order of
the Golden Fleece (painting
by Frans Luycx, around
1637/1638) |
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Reign |
1637 –1657 (as senior ruler) |
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30 December 1636 |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
8 December 1625 – 2 April 1657 |
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Coronation |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
21 November 1627 – 2 April 1657 |
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Coronation |
21 November 1627, Prague |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Reign |
15 February 1637 – 2 April 1657 |
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Predecessor |
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Successor |
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Spouse |
Maria Anna of Spain |
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Issue |
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Ferdinand
IV of Hungary |
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Mother |
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Born |
13 July 1608 |
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Died |
2 April 1657 (aged 48) |
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Imperial Crypt, Vienna, Austria |
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Religion |
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Ferdinand III (13
July 1608 – 2 April 1657) was Holy Roman Emperor from 15 February 1637 until his death,
as well as King of Hungary and Croatia, King of Bohemia and Archduke of Austria.
Contents
[hide]
·
1 Life
·
3 Music
·
5 Titles
Life[edit]
Ferdinand was born in Graz, the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg and his first wife, Maria Anna of Bavaria. Educated by the Jesuits,
he became King of Hungary in 1625, King of Bohemia in 1627 and Archduke of Austria in
1621.
In 1627 Ferdinand enhanced his authority and
set an important legal and military precedent by issuing a Revised Land
Ordinance that deprived the Bohemian estates of
their right to raise soldiers, reserving this power solely for the monarch.[2]
Following the death of Wallenstein (who had previously denied him the
overall military command of the Catholic side) in 1634, he was made titular
head of the Imperial Army in the Thirty Years' War, and later that year
joined with his cousin, the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand, being
nominally responsible of the capture of Donauwörth and Regensburg,
and of defeat of the Swedes at theBattle of Nördlingen. Leader of the peace
party at court, he helped negotiate the Peace of Prague with the Protestant states, especially Saxony in 1635.
Having been elected King of the Romans in 1636, he succeeded his father as Holy Roman
Emperor in 1637. He
hoped to be able to make peace soon with France and Sweden, but the war dragged
on for another 11 years, finally coming to an end with thePeace of Westphalia (Treaty of Münster with France, Treaty of Osnabrück with Sweden) in 1648, both negotiated
by his envoyMaximilian von und zu Trauttmansdorff, a
diplomat who had been made a count in 1623 by his father Ferdinand II.
During the last period of the war, in 1644
Ferdinand III gave to all rulers of German states the right to conduct their
own foreign policy (ius belli ac pacis). This way the emperor was trying
to gain more allies in the negotiations with France and Sweden. This very edict
contributed to the gradual erosion of the imperial authority in the Holy Roman
Empire.
After 1648 the emperor was engaged in
carrying out the terms of the treaty and ridding Germany of the foreign
soldiery. In 1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist Spain in her struggle
with France, and he had just concluded an alliance with Poland to check the
aggressions of Charles X of Sweden when he died on 2 April 1657.
Marriages and children[edit]
On 20 February 1631 Ferdinand III married his
first wife Archduchess Maria Anna of Spain. She was the youngest
daughter ofPhilip III of Spain and Margaret of Austria. They were first
cousins as Maria Anna's mother was a sister of Ferdinand's father. They were
parents to six children:
·
Ferdinand IV, King of the Romans (8 September 1633 – 9 July 1654)
·
Maria Anna "Mariana",
Archduchess of Austria (22 December 1634 – 16 May 1696). Married her
maternal uncle Philip IV of Spain.
·
Philip August,
Archduke of Austria (15 July 1637 – 22 June 1639)
·
Maximilian Thomas,
Archduke of Austria (21 December 1638 – 29 June 1639)
·
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (9 June 1640 – 5 May 1705)
·
Maria, Archduchess of
Austria (13 May 1646)
In 1648, Ferdinand III married his second wife, Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria.
She was a daughter of Leopold V, Archduke of Austria, and Claudia de' Medici. They were first
cousins as male-line grandchildren of Charles II, Archduke of Austria, and Maria Anna of Bavaria.
They had a single son:
·
Karl Josef, Archduke of Austria (7 August
1649 – 27 January 1664). He was Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights from 1662 to his death.
In 1651, Ferdinand III married Eleonora Gonzaga. She was a daughter of Charles IV Gonzaga, Duke of Rethel. They
were parents to four children:
·
Theresia Maria
Josefa, Archduchess of Austria (27 March 1652 – 26 July 1653)
·
Eleonora Maria of Austria (21 May 1653 – 17 December 1697),
who married first Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki, King of
Poland, and then Charles Léopold, Duke of Lorraine.
·
Maria Anna Josepha of Austria (30 December 1654 – 4 April
1689), who married Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine.
·
Ferdinand Josef
Alois, Archduke of Austria (11 February 1657 – 16 June 1658)
Music[edit]
Ferdinand III was a well-known patron of
music and a composer. He studied music under Giovanni Valentini, who bequeathed his
musical works to him, and had close ties with Johann Jakob Froberger, one of the most
important keyboard composers of the 17th century. Froberger lamented the
emperor's death and dedicated to him one of his most celebrated works, Lamentation faite sur la mort très
douloureuse de Sa Majesté Impériale, Ferdinand le troisième; a tombeau for Ferdinand III's death was composed
by the renowned violinist Johann Heinrich Schmelzer. Some of
Ferdinand's own compositions survive in manuscripts: masses, motets, hymns and
other sacred music, as well as a few secular pieces. His Drama musicum was praised by Athanasius Kircher, and the extant works,
although clearly influenced by Valentini, show a composer with an individual
style and a solid technique.[3]
Recordings of Ferdinand's compositions
include:
Jesu Redemptor Omnium. Deus
Tuorum. Humanae Salutis. With Schmelzer: Lamento Sopra La Morte de Ferdinand
III. Joseph I: Regina Coeli. Leopold I: Sonata Piena; Laudate Pueri. Wiener Akademie, dir. Martin Haselböck, CPO 1997.
Ferdinand III: Hymnus
"Jesu Corona Virginum". On Musik
für Gamben-Consort. Klaus Mertens,
Hamburger Ratsmusik, dir. Simone Eckert CPO 2010
Ancestors[edit]
|
Ancestors of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor |
Titles[edit]
Ferdinand III, by the grace of God
elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King of Germany, King of Hungary, Bohemia,
Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and
Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower
Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol,
Kyburg and Goritia, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Higher and
Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines,
etc. etc.
See also[edit]
·
Kings of Germany family tree. He was
related to every other king of Germany.
References[edit]
1.
^ Hengerer,
Mark (2012). Kaiser Ferdinand III. (1608-1657): Eine
Biographie (in German). Wien - Köln - Weimer: Böhlau
Verlag. p. 62. ISBN 978-3-205-77765-6.
2.
^ Rothenburg, G. The Army of Francis Joseph. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press,
1976. p 3.
3.
^ Lederer, Josef-Horst. "Ferdinand
III", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 December 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
·
Lothar Höbelt, Ferdinand III. (1608–1657).
Friedenskaiser wider Willen (Graz:
Ares Verlag. 2008), 488 S.
External links[edit]
Media
related to Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor at Wikimedia Commons
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Leopold
I, Holy Roman Emperor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Leopold
I (name in full: Leopold
Ignaz Joseph Balthasar Felician; Hungarian: I.
Lipót; 9 June 1640 – 5 May
1705) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of
Hungary and Croatia and King of
Bohemia. The
second son of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, by
his first wife, Maria Anna of Spain, Leopold became heir apparent in 1654 by the
death of his elder brother Ferdinand IV. Elected Holy Roman Emperor in
1658, Leopold would rule as such until his death in 1705. Leopold's
reign is known for the conflicts with the Ottoman Empire in the east, and the rivalry with Louis XIV,
a contemporary and first cousin, in the west. After
more than a decade of warfare, Leopold emerged victorious from the Great Turkish War thanks
to military talents of Prince Eugene of Savoy. By the Treaty of Karlowitz, Leopold recovered
almost all of the Kingdom of Hungary which
had fallen under the Turkish yoke in the years after the 1526 Battle of Mohács. Leopold
fought three wars against France - the Dutch War,
the Nine Years'
War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In this
last, Leopold sought to give his younger son the
entire Spanish inheritance, disregarding the late Spanish king's will. To this end,
he started a war which soon engulfed much of Europe. The early years of the
war went fairly well for Austria, with victories at Schellenberg and Blenheim. But this was a stubborn war
that would drag on till 1714, nine years after Leopold's death which, in
truth, barely had an effect on the warring nations of Europe. When Peace returned
at the end of it all, Austria could not be said to have emerged as triumphant
as it did from the war against the Turks. Contents
[hide] ·
3 Early wars against the Ottoman Empire ·
6 Success against the Turks and in Hungary ·
8 Character and overall assessment ·
10 Music ·
15 Notes Early years[Born
on 9 June 1640 in Vienna, Leopold received
a careful education by excellent teachers. From an early age Leopold showed
an inclination toward learning.[1] He became fluent in several languages: Latin, Italian, German, French,
and Spanish.
Leopold was schooled in the classics, history, literature, natural science
and astronomy, and was particularly interested in music, having inherited his
father's musical talents.[1] Originally
intended for the Church, Leopold had received a suitably ecclesiastical
education. But Fate put in motion a different plan for him when smallpox took his elder
brother Ferdinand on 9 July 1654 and made Leopold heir apparent.[2] Nonetheless, Leopold's church education had clearly
marked him. Leopold remained influenced by the Jesuits and his education throughout his life, and was
uncommonly knowledgeable for a monarch about theology, metaphysics,
jurisprudence and the sciences. He also retained his interest in astrology and alchemy which he had developed
under Jesuit tutors.[2] A deeply religious and devoted person, Leopold
personified the pietas Austriaca, or the
loyally Catholic attitude of his House. On the other hand, his piety and
education may have caused in him a fatalistic strain which inclined him to
reject all compromise on denominational questions, not always a positive
characteristic in a ruler.[3] Leopold
was said to have typically Habsburg physical attributes. Short, thin, and of
sickly constitution, Leopold was cold and reserved in public, and socially
awkward. However, he is also said to have been open with close associates. Coxe described Leopold in the
following manner: "His gait was stately, slow and deliberate; his air
pensive, his address awkward, his manner uncouth, his disposition cold and
phlegmatic."[4] Spielman argues that his long-expected career in the
clergy caused Leopold to have "early adopted the intense Catholic piety
expected of him and the gentle manners appropriate to a merely supporting
role. He grew to manhood without the military ambition that characterized
most of his fellow monarchs. From the beginning, his reign was defensive and
profoundly conservative."[5]
Hungary elected Leopold as its king in 1655, with Bohemia and Croatia following suit in 1656 and 1657 respectively. In
July 1658, more than a year after his father's death, Leopold was elected
Emperor at Frankfurt in spite of the French minister, Cardinal
Mazarin, who sought to put the Imperial Crown on the head of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria, or
some other non-Habsburg prince. To conciliate France, which had considerable
influence in German affairs thanks to the League of the Rhine, the newly-elected
Emperor promised not to assist Spain, then at war with France. This marked
the beginning of a nearly 47-year career filled with rivalry with France and
its king, Louis XIV. The latter's dominant personality and power completely
overshadowed Leopold, even to this day, but though Leopold did not lead his
troops in person as Louis XIV did, he was no less a warrior-king given the
greater part of his public life was directed towards the arrangement and
prosecution of wars. Second Northern War[Leopold's
first war was the Second Northern War (1655-1660).
This war saw King Charles X of Sweden try
to become King of Poland with the aid of allies including György II Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania. Leopold's
predecessor, Ferdinand III, had allied with King John II Casimir Vasa of
Poland in 1656. In 1657, Leopold expanded this alliance to include Austrian
troops (paid by Poland). These troops helped defeat the Transylvanian army,
and campaigned as far as Denmark. The
war ended with the Treaty of
Oliwa in 1660. Early wars against the Ottoman Empire[A
more dangerous foe next entered the lists. The Ottoman Empire interfered in the affairs of Transylvania, always an
unruly district, and this interference brought on a war with the Holy Roman Empire, which after some
desultory operations really began in 1663. By a personal appeal to the diet
at Regensburg Leopold induced the princes to send assistance for
the campaign; troops were also sent by France, and in August 1664, the great
Imperial general Raimondo Montecuccoli gained
a notable victory at Saint Gotthard. By the Peace of Vasvár the
Emperor made a twenty years' truce with the Sultan, granting more generous
terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. Wars against France[After
a few years of peace came the first of three wars between France and the
Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by Louis XIV towards
the Dutch Republic had aroused the serious attention of Europe, and
steps had been taken to check it. Although the French king had sought the
alliance of several German princes and encouraged the Ottomans in their
attacks on Austria the Emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was
on friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related and with whom he
had already discussed the partition of the lands of the Spanish monarchy. Moreover,
in 1671, he arranged with him a treaty of neutrality. In
1672, however, he was forced to take action. He entered into an alliance for
the defence of the United Provinces during the Franco-Dutch
War; then, after this league had collapsed owing to the defection
of the elector of Brandenburg,
the more durable Quadruple Alliance was
formed for the same purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of
Spain and several German princes, and the war was renewed. At this time,
twenty-five years after the Peace of Westphalia, the Empire was
virtually a confederation of independent princes, and it was very difficult
for its head to conduct any war with vigor and success, some of its members
being in alliance with the enemy and others being only lukewarm in their
support of the imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the
end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and the advantages of
the Treaty of Nijmegen were
with France. Almost
immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis renewed his aggressions on
the German frontier through theRéunions policy.
Engaged in a serious struggle with the Ottoman Empire, the emperor was again
slow to move, and although he joined the Association League against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce
at Regensburg two years later. In 1686 the League of Augsburg was
formed by the emperor and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the
treaties of Westphalia and of Nijmegen.
The whole European position was now bound up with events in England, and the
tension lasted until 1688, when William III of Orange won
the English crown through the Glorious Revolution and
Louis invaded Germany. In May 1689, the Grand Alliance was
formed, including the emperor, the kings of England, Spain and Denmark, the
elector ofBrandenburg and others, and a
fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the whole of
western Europe. In general the several campaigns were favourable to the
allies, and in September 1697, England, Spain and the United
Provinces made peace with France at
the Treaty of Rijswijk. To
this treaty, Leopold refused to assent, as he considered that his allies had
somewhat neglected his interests, but in the following month he came to terms
and a number of places were transferred from France to Germany. The peace
with France lasted for about four years and then Europe was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession. The king
of Spain, Charles II, was a Habsburg by descent
and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie bound
him to the royal house of France. He was feeble and childless, and attempts
had been made by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable division of
his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any partition, and when
in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to Philippe de France, Duke of
Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV, all hopes of a peaceable
settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III a
powerful league, a renewed Grand Alliance, was formed against France; of this
the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim on
the Spanish monarchy to his second son, Charles. The early course of the war was
not favorable to the Imperialists, but the tide of defeat had been rolled
back by the great victory of Blenheim before
Leopold died on 5 May 1705. Internal problems[The
emperor himself defined the guidelines of the politics. Johann Weikhard Auersperg was
overthrown in 1669 as the leading minister. He was followed by Wenzel
Eusebius Lobkowicz. Both had arranged some
connections to France without the knowledge of the emperor. In 1674 also
Lobkowicz lost his appointment.[6] In
governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in Hungary,
where unrest was caused partly by his desire to crushProtestantism and partly by the so-called Magnate conspiracy. A rising was
suppressed in 1671 and for some years Hungary was treated with great
severity. In 1681, after another rising, some grievances were removed and a
less repressive policy was adopted, but this did not deter the Hungarians
from revolting again. Espousing the cause of the rebels the sultan sent an
enormous army into Austria early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was besieged from July to September, while
Leopold took refuge at Passau. Realizing the
gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the German princes, among
them the electors ofSaxony and Bavaria, led their
contingents to the Imperial Army, which was
commanded by the emperor's brother-in-law, Charles, duke of Lorraine, but the most
redoubtable of Leopold's allies was the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already dreaded
by the Turks. Austrian forces occupied the castle of Trebišov in 1675, but in 1682 Imre Thököly captured it and
then fled from continuous Austrian attacks, so they blew the castle up, since
then it is in ruins. They fled as supposedly Hungarian rebel troops under the
command of Imre Thököly, cooperating with the Turks, and sacked the city of Bielsko-Biała in 1682. In 1692, Leopold gave up his rights to the
property and he gave his rights to the property by a donation to Theresia Keglević.[7][8] He
also expelled Jewish communities from his realm, for example the Viennese
Jewish community, which used to live in an area called "Im Werd"
across the Danube river. After the expulsion of the Jewish population, with
popular support, the area was renamedLeopoldstadt as a thanksgiving. But Frederick William I, Elector of
Brandenburg, issued an edict in 1677, in which he announced his
special protection for 50 families of these expelled Jews, he made clear that
the next election of the next emperor would become exciting.[9] When
Leopold came to Bohemia in 1679 he received a flood of petitions presented,
but many peasant petitioners were arrested after his departure and no action
was taken to rectify the shortcomings. There was a peasant uprising and over
a hundred leaders of the uprising were executed. Then Leopold adopted in 1680
the so-called Pragmatica, which
re-regulated the relationship between landlord and peasant.[10] The escape from Trebišov through Bielsko-Biała
in 1682 no one believed. In
1690, Transylvania put a veto against
a constitutional amendment, attempted by Leopold, about some religious
questions.[11] In 1692, Peter the
Great became a little bit sorry that
he only met Jesuits at the court in Vienna, when he visited Leopold.[12] In 1692, Prince Michael
of Transylvania was called to
Vienna, because of a dispute over his recent marriage. Success against the Turks and in Hungary[On
12 September 1683, the allied army fell upon the enemy, who was completely
routed, and Vienna was
saved. The imperial forces, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoywas rapidly
becoming prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohács in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January
1699, the sultan signed the treaty of Karlowitz by
which he admitted the sovereign rights of the house of Habsburg over nearly
the whole of Hungary (including Serbian Vojvodina). As the Habsburg forces retreated, they withdrew
37,000 Serb families
under Peć Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević. In
1690 and 1691 Emperor Leopold I had conceived through a number of edicts the
autonomy of Serbs in his Empire, which would last and develop for more than
two centuries until its abolition in 1912. Before the conclusion of the war,
however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen his hold upon this country.
In 1687, the Hungarian diet in Bratislava (called Pressburg at that time) changed the constitution, the right of
the Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was admitted and the
emperor's elder son Joseph I was
crowned hereditary king of Hungary. The Holy Roman Empire[The Peace of Westphalia in
1648 had been a political defeat for the Habsburgs. It ended the idea that Europe was a single Christian
empire; governed spiritually by the Pope and
temporally by the Holy Roman Emperor. Moreover, the treaty was devoted to
parceling out land and influence to the "winners", the
anti-Habsburg alliance led by France and Sweden. However, the Habsburgs did
gain some benefits out of the wars; the Protestant aristocracy in
Habsburg territories had been decimated, and the ties between Vienna and the
Habsburg domains in Bohemia and elsewhere were greatly strengthened. These
changes would allow Leopold to initiate necessary political and institutional
reforms during his reign to develop somewhat of an absolutist state along
French lines. The most important consequences of the war was in retrospect to
weaken the Habsburgs as emperors but strengthen them in their own lands. Leopold
was the first to realize this altered state of affairs and act in accordance
with it.[13] Administrative reform[The
reign of Leopold saw some important changes made in the constitution of the
Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered upon the last stage of its
existence, and became a body permanently in session at Regensburg. This
perpetual diet would become a vital tool for consolidation of Habsburg power
under Leopold.[14] Political changes[In
1692, the duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, becoming the
ninth member of the electoral college. In 1700, Leopold, greatly in need of
help for the impending war with France, granted the title of king in Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net result of these and similar changes was
to weaken the authority of the emperor over the members of the Empire and to
compel him to rely more and more upon his position as ruler of the Austrian
archduchies and of Hungary and Bohemia. Character and overall assessment[Leopold
was a man of industry and education, and during his later years, he showed
some political ability. Regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was
extremely tenacious of his rights. Greatly influenced by the Jesuits, he was a staunch proponent of the Counter-reformation. In person, he was
short, but strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military
life, he loved exercise in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he also
had a taste for music and composed several Oratorios and Suites of Dances. Due
to an extreme interbreeding among his progenitors, the hereditary Habsburg
jaw was most prominent in Leopold. Because his jaw was depicted unusually
large on a 1670 silver coin, Leopold was nicknamed "the Hogmouth". However,
most collectors do not believe the coin was an accurate depiction.[citation
needed] Private life[Leopold
was married three times. In
1666, he married Margarita Teresa of Austria (1651–1673), daughter of King Philip IV of Spain, who was both his
niece and his first cousin. She was the blonde princess depicted in Diego Velázquez' masterpiece Las Meninas.
The wonderful series of Velazquez portraits of this lovely Spanish princess
at various stages of her childhood were sent from the court of Madrid to
Leopold as he waited in Vienna for his fiancee to grow up. This beautiful
girl, the representation of merry childhood, was married at fifteen. She gave
birth to four children and finally died at the age of twenty-one, leaving
Leopold heartbroken, as he had truly loved her. Leopold
and Margarita Teresa of Austria's children: ·
Archduke
Ferdinand Wenzel (1667–1668). ·
Archduchess Maria Antonia (1669–1692) married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of
Bavaria. ·
Archduke
Johann Leopold (1670), Archduke of Austria. ·
Archduchess
Maria Anna Antonia (1672), Archduchess of Austria. His
second wife was Archduchess Claudia Felicitas of Austria,
the heiress of Tyrol. She died at the age of twenty-two on 2 September 1676;
their two daughters also died. She was buried in the crypt of the St. Dominic
side chapel of the Dominican church in Vienna. 2. Archduchess Anna Maria Sophia (1674). 3. Archduchess Maria Josepha (1675–1676). His
third wife was Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, a
princess of the Palatinate. They had the following
children: ·
Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1678–1711) married Wilhelmine Amalia of
Brunswick-Lüneburg. ·
Archduchess
Christina (1679). ·
Archduchess
Maria Elisabeth (1680–1741) Governor
of the Austrian Netherlands. ·
Archduke Leopold Joseph (1682–1684). ·
Archduchess Maria Anna (1683–1754)
married John V of Portugal. ·
Archduchess Maria Theresa (1684–1696). ·
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1685–1740) married Elisabeth Christine of
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. ·
Archduchess
Maria Josepha (1687–1703). ·
Archduchess Maria Magdalena (1689–1743). ·
Archduchess
Maria Margaret (1690–1691). Music[Like
his father, Leopold was a patron of music and a composer.[15] He continued to enrich the court's musical life by
employing and providing support for distinguished composers such as Antonio
Bertali, Giovanni Bononcini, Johann Kaspar Kerll, Ferdinand Tobias Richter, Alessandro Poglietti, and Johann Fux. Leopold's surviving works show the influence of
Bertali and Viennese composers in general (in oratorios and other dramatic
works), and of Johann Heinrich Schmelzer (in ballets and German comedies). His sacred music
is perhaps his most successful, particularly Missa
angeli custodis, a Requiem Mass for
his first wife, and Three Lections,
composed for the burial of his second wife.[16] Much of Leopold's music was published with works by
his father, and described as "works of exceeding high merit."[17][18] Titles[The
full titulature of Leopold after he had become emperor went as follows: Leopold I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman
Emperor, forever August, King of Germany, King of Hungary,King of Bohemia,
Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania,
Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower
Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol,
Kyburg and Goritia, Landgrave of Alsace, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire,
Burgovia, the Enns, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of
Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc. etc. Ancestors[
See also[·
Family tree of the German monarchs He was related to every other king of Germany. References[
Notes[·
^ a b John P. Spielman; Leopold I of Austria (1977) ·
^ a b Joseph A. Biesinger;
"Germany: European nations" in Facts on File library of world history. pg 529. ·
^ Heide Dienst; Professor,
Institute of Austrian History Research, University of Vienna. ·
^ Coxe, William (1853). History of the House of Austria: From the Foundation
of the Monarchy by Rhodolph of Hapsburgh, to the Death of Leopold the Second:
1218 to 1792. London: Henry G. Bohn. p. 515. ·
^ John P. Spielman;
"Europe, 1450 to 1789" in Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World ·
^ Volker Press (not yet
published) (in German). "I., Leopold ". In Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). . 14 . Berlin: Duncker &
Humblot. p. 257 . ·
^ Das Königreich Ungarn: Ein
topograph.-hist.-statistisches Rundgemälde, d. Ganze dieses Landes in mehr
denn 12,400 Artikeln umfassend, Band 3, Seite 271, J.C. von Thiele, 1833. ·
^ Henryk Rechowicz:
Bielsko-Biała. Zarys Rozwoju miasta i powiatu. Katowice: Wydawnictwo
"Śląsk", 1971. ·
^ Juden in Wriezen: ihr Leben in
der Stadt von 1677 bis 1940 und ihr Friedhof, Band 1 von Pri ha-Pardes, Seite
12, Brigitte Heidenhain, Universitätsverlag Potsdam, 2007, ISBN 978-3-939469-39-1 ·
^ Geschichte Böhmens: von der
slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart, Beck's historische Bibliothek, Seite
252, Jörg Konrad Hoensch, Ausgabe 3, Verlag C.H.Beck, 1997, ISBN
978-3-406-41694-1 ·
^ Konfessionsbildung und
Konfessionskultur in Siebenbürgen in der Frühen Neuzeit, Band 66, Seite 64,
Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte des östlichen Europa, Geschichte (Franz
Steiner Verlag), Konfessionsbildung und Konfessionskultur in Siebenbürgen in
der Frühen Neuzeit, Volker Leppin, Ulrich A. Wien, Franz Steiner Verlag,
2005, ISBN
978-3-515-08617-2 ·
^ Original anecdotes of Peter
the Great, collected from the conversation of several persons of distinction
at Petersburgh and Moscow, page 46, Jakob von Staehlin, Printed for J.
Murray, 1788. ·
^ Thomas Noble. "Western
Civilization: Beyond Boundaries". Cengage Learning. 2008. p. 507-508. ·
^ Anton Schindling. "The
Development of the Eternal Diet in Regensburg". The Journal of Modern
History 58 (December 1986). p. S69. ·
^ Dalberg-Acton, John Emerich Edward et al. (1912). The Cambridge Modern
History: Volume V: The Age of Louis XIV. New York: The MacMillan
Company. p. 341. ·
^ Schnitzler, Rudolf, and
Seifert, Herbert. "Leopold I", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 13
December 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access). · ^ ·
^ Adler, Guido (1892). Musikalishe Werke der Kaiser Ferdinand III., Leopold
I., and Joseph I.,. Vienna, Austria: Antaria & Company. Bibliography[·
Crankshaw,
Edward, The Habsburgs: Portrait of a Dynasty (New York, The Viking Press, 1971). ·
Frey,
Linda, and Marsha Frey. "A Question of Empire: Leopold I and the War of
Spanish Succession, 1701-1715," Austrian
History Yearbook (1978) Vol. 14, pp 56–72. ·
Frey,
Linda, and Marsha Frey. "The Latter Years of Leopold I and his Court,
1700-1705: A Pernicious Factionalism," Historian (1978) 40#3 pp 479–491 ·
Frey,
Linda and Marsha Frey. A Question of Empire:
Leopold I and the War of Spanish Succession, 1701-1705 (1983) ·
Goloubeva,
Maria. The Glorification of Emperor Leopold
I in Image, Spectacle and Text (Mainz,
2000) (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte. Abteilung
für Universalgeschichte, 184). ·
Kampmann,
Christoph. "The English Crisis, Emperor Leopold, and the Origins of the
Dutch Intervention in 1688," Historical
Journal (2012) 55#2 pp 521–532. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X1200012X External links[
·
Free scores by Leopold I, Holy
Roman Emperor at the International Music Score Library
Project
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